Pre- and Pro-biotics
Bifidobacteria are a subclass of a group of bacteria considered important to the health of the gastrointestinal tract hence they are often referred to as “good bacteria” (Tanyak 999). Increasing populations of these “good bacteria” (and suppressing potentially deleterious microorganisms) are thought to be important to maintaining optimal gastrointestinal health. Bifidobacteria populations in the gut can be increased by consuming probiotics or prebiotics. A probiotic is a live microbial feed supplement which beneficially affects the host organism by improving its intestinal microbial balance. A prebiotic is a non-digestible dietary supplement that modifies the balance of the intestinal microflora thereby stimulating the growth and/or activity of the beneficial bacteria while suppressing the growth of the harmful bacteria. The most common prebiotics are nondigestible oligosaccharides including fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), and inulin. Honey contains a variety of oligosaccharides that may function as prebiotics. Research conducted at Michigan State University has shown that adding honey to fermented dairy products such as yogurt can enhance the growth, activity, and viability of Bifidobacteria as well as other commercial oligosaccharides.

Refractive Index
The moisture, or conversely the soluble solids in honey, is determined by measuring the refractive index of honey using a refractometer. Because the refractive index of honey is different from that of a sucrose solution at the same concentration, a special moisture chart must be used. This chart is found in AOAC Method 969.38 (see Analytical Methods). Using the “Brix” or “Sucrose” scale will provide inaccurate values for honey.

Specific Gravity
Dependent upon water content:

Other factors such as floral source slightly affect the specific gravity of honey.
Honeys from different origins or batches should be thoroughly mixed to avoid layering.

Specific Heat & Thermal Conductivity
The specific heat of honey is in the 0.54-0.60 cal/g/°C range for liquid honey, and is equal to 0.73 cal/g/°C for finely granulated honey. The thermal conductivity of honey increases with temperature and total solids, ranging from 118 x 10 -5 to 143 x 10 -5 cal/cm sec °C.

Sports Nutrition
It is well-known that carbohydrate consumption prior to, during and after exercise enhances performance and speeds recovery. Honey is a natural source of readily available carbohydrates, providing 17 grams of carbohydrates per tablespoon and may serve as an inexpensive alternative to commercial sports gels. Preliminary data from the University of Memphis Exercise and Sports Nutrition Laboratory suggest that honey is as effective as glucose for carbohydrate replacement during endurance exercise.

Storage
At room temperature, crystallization begins within weeks or months (but rarely days). The crystallization process can be avoided with proper storage, with emphasis on proper storage temperature. For long-term storage, the use of air-tight, moisture-resistant stainless steel drums is recommended. Cool temperatures [below 50°F (10°C)] are ideal for preventing crystallization. Moderate temperatures [50-70°F (10-21°C)] generally encourage crystallization. Warm temperatures [70-81°F (21-27°C)] discourage crystallization but degrade the honey. Very warm temperatures [over 81°F (27°C)] prevent crystallization but encourage spoilage by fermentation as well as degrading the honey.

Sweetness
In most honeys, fructose predominates and tends to make honey taste slightly sweeter than sugar. On the average, honey is 1 to 1.5 times sweeter (on a dry weight basis) than sugar.

Viscosity
The viscosity of honey is affected by temperature, moisture content and fl oral source. Table 4 shows how the viscosity changes as temperature, moisture content and floral source change. The viscosity of honey decreases rapidly as its temperature rises. 1% moisture is equivalent to about 3.5°C in its effect on viscosity.

Table 4

Water Activity
Honey’s water activity varies between 0.5 (16% moisture) and 0.6 (18.3% moisture) in the 40-100 °F (4-37 °C) temperature range. (16.5% H2O)